An earthquake occurred on 22 June 2002 with the epicenter near the city of Bou'in-Zahra in Iran's Qazvin province. The region is crossed by several major faults and known for destructive earthquakes. The shock measured 6.5 on the Mwc scale, had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), and was followed by more than 20 aftershocks. At least 261 people were killed and 1,500 more were injured.
According to the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), the earthquake was felt as far away as the capital city of Tehran, approximately 290 kilometres (180mi) east of the epicenter, although no damage was reported there. Most houses in the region were single-story masonry buildings, and virtually all of these collapsed. Public anger arose due to the slow official response to victims who needed supplies. Residents of the town of Avaj resorted to throwing stones at the car of a government minister. (Full article...)
In 1257, a catastrophic eruption occurred at Samalas, a volcano on the Indonesian island of Lombok. The event had a probable Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7, making it one of the largest volcanic eruptions during the Holocene epoch. It left behind a large caldera that contains Lake Segara Anak. Later volcanic activity created more volcanic centres in the caldera, including the Barujari cone, which remains active.
The event created eruption columns reaching tens of kilometres into the atmosphere and pyroclastic flows that buried much of Lombok and crossed the sea to reach the neighbouring island of Sumbawa. The flows destroyed human habitations, including the city of Pamatan, which was the capital of a kingdom on Lombok. Ash from the eruption fell as far as 340 kilometres (210mi) away in Java; the volcano deposited more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4cumi) of rocks and ash. (Full article...)
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The formation of the Himalayas (pictured) during the Early Eocene some 52mya was a key factor in determining India's modern-day climate; global climate and ocean chemistry may have been affected.The climate of India includes a wide range of weather conditions, influenced by its vast geographic scale and varied topography. Based on the Köppen system, India encompasses a diverse array of climatic subtypes. These range from arid and semi-arid regions in the west to highland, sub-arctic, tundra, and ice cap climates in the northern Himalayan regions, varying with elevation.
The Indo-Gangetic Plains in the north experience a humid subtropical climate which become more temperate at higher altitudes, like the Sivalik Hills, or continental in some areas like Gulmarg. In contrast, much of the south and the east exhibit tropical climate conditions, which support lush rainforests in parts of these territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates, making it one of the most climatically diverse countries in the world. The country's meteorological department follows four seasons with some local adjustments: winter (December to February), summer (March to May), monsoon or south-west monsoon (June to September) and post-monsoon or north-east monsoon (October to November). Some parts of the country with subtropical, temperate or continental climates also experience spring and autumn. (Full article...)
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Alaska's McCarty Glacier retreated about 15 kilometres (9.3mi) in less than a century, and dense, diverse vegetation has become established on the slopes. The retreat of glaciers since 1850 is a well-documented effect of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers provides evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. Examples include mountain glaciers in western North America, Asia, the Alps in central Europe, and tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa. Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g. precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate change. The retreat of glaciers is also a major reason for sea level rise. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26 years from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per year.
On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as "continental glaciers") in the polar regions. Glaciers also exist in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000km2 (19,000sqmi) are called ice sheets. They are several kilometers deep and obscure the underlying topography. (Full article...)
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The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) extinction event, was a major mass extinction of three-quarters (75%) of the plant and animal species on Earth which occurred around 66million years ago. The event caused the extinction of all the non-avian dinosaurs and most other tetrapods weighing more than 25kg (55lb), excepting some ectothermic species such as sea turtles and crocodilians. It marked the ends of both the Cretaceous period and the Mesozoic era, and logged the beginning of the current geological era, the Cenozoic era.
Its geology is characterized by granite and remnants of older rock. About 10million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and tilted to form its unique slopes, which increased the steepness of stream and river beds, forming deep, narrow canyons. About one million years ago, glaciers formed at higher elevations. They moved downslope, cutting and sculpting the U-shaped Yosemite Valley. (Full article...)
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Calabozos is a Holocenecaldera in central Chile's Maule Region (7th Region). Part of the Chilean Andes' volcanic segment, it is considered a member of the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), one of the three distinct volcanic belts of South America. This most active section of the Andes runs along central Chile's western edge, and includes more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields. Calabozos lies in an extremely remote area of poorly glaciated mountains.
Isabel at peak intensity, northeast of the Leeward Islands, on September 11
Hurricane Isabel was a large and powerful Category 5Atlantic hurricane that struck the east coast of the United States in September 2003. The ninth named storm, fifth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season, Isabel formed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean on September6 from a tropical wave. It moved northwestward through an area with light wind shear and warm waters, resulting in strengthening. Isabel reached peak winds of 165mph (266km/h) on September 11. After fluctuating in intensity for four days, Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, with winds of 105mph (169km/h) on September 18, or a Category2 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. Isabel quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania on the next day. On September 20, the extratropical remnants of Isabel were absorbed into another system over Eastern Canada.
In North Carolina, the storm surge from Isabel washed out a portion of Hatteras Island to form what was unofficially known as Isabel Inlet. Damage was greatest along the Outer Banks, where thousands of homes were damaged or even destroyed. The worst of the effects of Isabel occurred in Virginia, especially in the Hampton Roads area and along the shores of rivers as far west and north as Richmond and Baltimore. Virginia reported the most deaths and damage from the hurricane. About 64% of the damage and 69% of the deaths occurred in North Carolina and Virginia. Electric service was disrupted in areas of Virginia for several days, some more rural areas were without electricity for weeks, and local flooding caused thousands of dollars in damage. (Full article...)
Bryce Canyon National Park (/braɪs/) is a national park of the United States located in southwestern Utah. The major feature of the park is Bryce Canyon, which, despite its name, is not a canyon but a collection of giant natural amphitheaters along the eastern side of the Paunsaugunt Plateau. Bryce is distinctive due to geological structures called hoodoos, formed by frost weathering and stream erosion of the river and lake bed sedimentary rock. The red, orange, and white colors of the rocks provide distinctive views for park visitors. Bryce Canyon National Park is much smaller and sits at a much higher elevation than nearby Zion National Park. The rim at Bryce varies from 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400 to 2,700m).
The area is in portions of Garfield County and Kane County. It was settled by Mormon pioneers in the 1850s and was named after Ebenezer Bryce, who homesteaded in the area in 1874. The area was originally designated as a national monument by President Warren G. Harding in 1923 and was redesignated as a national park by Congress in 1928. The park covers 35,835 acres (55.992sqmi; 14,502ha; 145.02km2) and receives substantially fewer visitors than Zion National Park (nearly 4.3 million in 2016) or Grand Canyon National Park (almost 6 million in 2016), largely due to Bryce's more remote location. In 2024, Bryce Canyon received almost 2.5million visitors. (Full article...)
The method was developed in the late 1940s at the University of Chicago by Willard Libby. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (14 C) is constantly being created in the Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting 14 C combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14 C there is to be detected. The half-life of 14 C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, so the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago, although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960. (Full article...)
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Ice core sample taken from drill An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper ones, and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years. Cores are drilled with hand augers (for shallow holes) or powered drills; they can reach depths of over two miles (3.2km), and contain ice up to 800,000 years old.
The physical properties of the ice and of material trapped in it can be used to reconstruct the climate over the age range of the core. The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. Since heat flow in a large ice sheet is very slow, the borehole temperature is another indicator of temperature in the past. This data can be combined to find the climate model that best fits all the available data. (Full article...)
The earthquake had a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused minor damage, reports of which were confined to Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri, according to the United States Geological Survey. Felt over an area of 200,000 square miles (520,000km2), the earthquake reached the states of Indiana, Illinois, and possibly Ohio, though the latter reports have been questioned. (Full article...)
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A map of Earth as it appeared 60 million years ago during the Paleocene Epoch, Selandian Age
The epoch is bracketed by two major events in Earth's history. The K–Pg extinction event, brought on by an asteroid impact (Chicxulub impact) and possibly volcanism (Deccan Traps), marked the beginning of the Paleocene and killed off 75% of species, most famously the non-avian dinosaurs. The end of the epoch was marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which was a major climatic event wherein about 2,500–4,500 gigatons of carbon were released into the atmosphere and ocean systems, causing a spike in global temperatures and ocean acidification. (Full article...)
A geyser (/ˈɡaɪzər/, UK: /ˈɡiːzər/) is a spring with an intermittent water discharge ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. The formation of geysers is fairly rare and is caused by particular hydrogeological conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.
Generally, geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres (6,600ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The pressurized water boils, and this causes the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent. (Full article...)
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Imaging from NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission STS-99 reveals part of the diameter ring of the crater in the form of a shallow circular trough. Numerous cenotes (sinkholes) cluster around the trough marking the inner crater rim.
The Chicxulub crater is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. The crater is named after the onshore inland community of Chicxulub Pueblo. It was formed slightly over 66 million years ago when an asteroid, about ten kilometers (six miles) in diameter, struck Earth. The crater is estimated to be two hundred kilometers (120mi) in diameter and is buried to a depth of about one kilometer (0.6mi) beneath younger sedimentary rocks. It is one of the largest impact structures on Earth, alongside the much older Sudbury and Vredefort impact structures, and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.
The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield, geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán Peninsula during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact with Alan R. Hildebrand in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the crater's impact origin includes shocked quartz, a gravity anomaly, and tektites in surrounding areas. (Full article...)
Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years. While non-native mountain men visited during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration by non-natives did not begin until the late 1860s. The park was established by the 42nd U.S.Congress through the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone was the first national park in the US, and is also widely understood to be the first national park in the world. (Full article...)
Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about 50cm (20in) in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, Archaeopteryx had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes ("killing claw"), feathers (which also suggest warm-bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton. (Full article...)
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Crater Lake and Wizard Island from Lake Lodge area in 2023
Crater Lake (Klamath: Giiwas) is a volcanic crater lake in south-central Oregon in the Western United States. It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is a tourist attraction known for its deep blue color and water clarity. The lake partly fills a 2,148-foot-deep (655m) caldera that was formed around 7,700 (± 150) years ago by the collapse of the volcano Mount Mazama. No rivers flow into or out of the lake; the evaporation is compensated for by rain and snowfall at a rate such that the total amount of water is replaced every 150 years. With a depth of 1,949 feet (594m), the lake is the deepest in the United States. In the world, it ranks tenth for maximum depth, as well as fifth for mean depth.
Crater Lake features two small islands. Wizard Island, located near the western shore of the lake, is a cinder cone about 316 acres (128 hectares) in size. Phantom Ship, a natural rock pillar, is located near the southern shore. (Full article...)
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A magnitude 6.4 Msearthquake struck Ecuador's Tungurahua Province southeast of its capital Ambato and killed 5,050people on August 5, 1949. The nearby villages of Guano, Patate, Pelileo, and Pillaro were destroyed, and the city of Ambato suffered heavy damage. The earthquake flattened buildings and subsequent landslides caused damage throughout the Tungurahua, Chimborazo, and Cotopaxi Provinces. It disrupted water mains and communication lines and opened a fissure into which the small town of Libertad sank. Moderate shaking from the event extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil.
Earthquakes in Ecuador stem from two major interrelated tectonic areas: the subduction of the Nazca plate under the South American plate and the Andean Volcanic Belt. The 1949 Ambato earthquake initially followed an intersection of several northwest–southeast-trending faults in the Inter-Andean Valley which were created by the subduction of the Carnegie Ridge. Strata of rock cracked as the earthquake ruptured the faults, sending out powerful shock waves. Today threats exist throughout the country from both interplate and intraplate seismicity. (Full article...)
The Ediacaran biota may have undergone evolutionary radiation in a proposed event called the Avalon explosion, 575million years ago. This was after the Earth had thawed from the Cryogenian period's extensive glaciation. This biota largely disappeared with the rapid increase in biodiversity known as the Cambrian explosion. Most of the currently existing body plans of animals first appeared in the fossil record of the Cambrian rather than the Ediacaran. For macroorganisms, the Cambrian biota appears to have almost completely replaced the organisms that dominated the Ediacaran fossil record, although relationships are still a matter of debate. (Full article...)
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Anning with her dog, Tray, painted before 1842; the hill Golden Cap can be seen in the background.
Anning searched for fossils in the area's Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone cliffs, particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea. Her discoveries included the first correctly identified ichthyosaur skeleton when she was twelve years old; the first two nearly complete plesiosaur skeletons; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany; and fish fossils. Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites, known as bezoar stones at the time, were fossilised faeces, and she also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods. (Full article...)
Did you know (auto-generated)
... that Frederick Murray Trotter had a distinguished career as a field geologist despite losing a part of his skull and an eye to shrapnel during World WarI?
... that life exists in every part of the biosphere, from the deepest parts of the ocean to altitudes of up to 64km (40 miles) in the atmosphere?
... that the Taiwanese restaurant chain Formosa Chang drew inspiration from McDonald's for its non-greasy atmosphere and corporate practices?
... that Kenshi Yonezu's song "Dune" describes his perception of a "desert-like atmosphere" on the video-sharing website Niconico?
... that geologist E.Dale Jackson conducted experiments with Jello to test theories on the formation of the Hawaiian islands?
... that a ridge on the Kerguelen Islands is named after Élisabeth Jérémine, a Russian-French geologist who analysed rocks from the islands?
... that English amateur geologist Charlotte Eyton wrote a number of papers and pamphlets on the geology of the Wrekin, a part of Shropshire, between 1862 and 1870?
...that a tuya(pictured) is a type of flat-topped, steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet?
...that in the United States, on average tornadoes are around 500feet (150m) across, and stay on the ground for 5miles (8km)?
...that dust storms can carry large amounts of dust, so much so that the leading edge of one can appear as a solid wall of dust as much as 1.6km (1mile) high?
...that the area of the world Ocean is 361millionsquare kilometers, its volume is approximately 1.3billioncubickilometers, and its average depth is 3,790meters?
...that three quarters of the earth's atmosphere lies within the troposphere, and the depth of this layer varies between 17km at the equator and 7km at the poles?
...that the Mariana Trench is the deepest point in the ocean?
Image 29Atmospheric gases scatter blue wavelengths of visible light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth’s visible edge a blue halo. At higher and higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes so thin that it essentially ceases to exist. Gradually, the atmospheric halo fades into the blackness of space. (Credit: NASA's Earth Observatory.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Image 31Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals and shaped like hairlike filaments. They are formed at an altitudes above 5000 metres (16,500 feet). The streaks are made of snowflakes that are falling from the cloud and being caught by the high level winds. The streaks point in the direction of the wind and may appear straight giving the clouds the appearance of a comma (cirrus uncinus), or may by seem tangled, an indication of high level turbulence. (Credit: Piccolo Namek.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Image 34Astronauts aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery recorded this rarely seen phenomenon of the full Moon partially obscured by the atmosphere of Earth. The image was recorded with an electronic still camera at 15:15:15 GMT, Dec. 21, 1999. (Credit: NASA.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
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Erg Chebbi (Arabic: عرج شبّي) is the sole Saharan erg in Morocco. It is 22 km long (North-South) and 5 km wide. Its dunes reach a maximum height of 150 meters. It is located roughly 40 kilometers south-east of Erfoud. The local center for tourists is the village of Merzouga. (Credit: Rosa Cabecinhas and Alcino Cunha.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Weathered rocks at Joshua Tree National Park, by Mila Zinkova (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Northern shore meadows of Sihlsee, an artificial lake near Einsiedeln in the Canton of Schwyz, Switzerland. (Credit: Markus Bernet.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
A true-color picture of Ireland, as seen from space, with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Irish Sea to the east. (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Tsunami in Thailand at 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, by David Rydevik (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Petrified log at Petrified Forest National Park, by Moondigger (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Ant trapped in Baltic amber, by Baltic-amber-beetle (edited by AmericanXplorer13) (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Mount Hood reflected in Mirror Lake, Oregon. (Credit: Oregon's Mt. Hood Territory.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Incandescent Pahoeoe Fountain at Shield volcano, by J.D. Griggs, USGS (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Antarctica, the continent surrounding the Earth's South Pole, is the coldest place on earth and is almost entirely covered by ice. Antarctica was discovered in late January 1820. Too cold and dry to support virtually any vascular plants, Antarctica's flora presently consists of around 250 lichens, 100 mosses, 25-30 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species. (Credit: NASA.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake tsunami at 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, by Vasily V. Titov, NOAA (edited by Veledan) (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Mount Redoubt eruption, by R. Clucas (USGS) (edited by Janke) (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
This map shows the tracks of all tropical cyclones that formed worldwide from 1985 to 2005. The points show the locations of the storms at six-hourly intervals and use the color scheme shown on the right from the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. (Credit: Nilfanion.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Blairmorite, by Paul Glombick (edited by Bammesk) (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Pressure release of granite in the Enchanted Rock State Natural Area of Texas, United States. The photo shows the geological exfoliation of granite dome rock. (Taken by Wing-Chi Poon on 2nd April 2005.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Atmospheric gases scatter blue wavelengths of visible light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth’s visible edge a blue halo. At higher and higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes so thin that it essentially ceases to exist. Gradually, the atmospheric halo fades into the blackness of space. (Credit: NASA's Earth Observatory.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals and shaped like hairlike filaments. They are formed at an altitudes above 5000 metres (16,500 feet). The streaks are made of snowflakes that are falling from the cloud and being caught by the high level winds. The streaks point in the direction of the wind and may appear straight giving the clouds the appearance of a comma (cirrus uncinus), or may by seem tangled, an indication of high level turbulence. (Credit: Piccolo Namek.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
Crystalline dolomite and magnesite, by Didier Descouens (from Wikipedia:Featured pictures/Sciences/Geology)
Astronauts aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery recorded this rarely seen phenomenon of the full Moon partially obscured by the atmosphere of Earth. The image was recorded with an electronic still camera at 15:15:15 GMT, Dec. 21, 1999. (Credit: NASA.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
A thunderstorm is a form of severe weather involving lightning and thunder. Thunderstorms have had a lasting and powerful influence on mankind. Romans thought them to be battles waged by Jupiter. Thunderstorms were associated with the Thunderbird, held by Native Americans to be a servant of the Great Spirit. (Credit: John Kerstholt.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
The world's largest compass rose, drawn on the desert floor at Edwards Air Force Base in California, United States. Painted on the playa near Dryden Flight Research Center, it is inclined to magnetic north and is used by pilots for calibrating heading indicators. (Credit: NASA.) (from Portal:Earth sciences/Selected pictures)
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