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Caramelo (dog)

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Caramelo
Caramelo trotting at the beach
Other namesCaramel mutt
Common nicknames
  • vira-lata caramelo Brazil
  • perrito amarillo Mexico
Traits
Weight 30–50 lb (14–23 kg)[1]
Colour
Dog (domestic dog)

The caramelo (Portuguese: [kaɾaˈmɛlu] ⓘ) is a mixed-breed, caramel‑colored dog type traditionally associated with a free-ranging lifestyle in Latin America.[a][1][2] In addition to the honey-colored coat, the designation "vira-lata caramelo" (Brazilian Portuguese for 'caramel trashcan-tipper') also refers to the fact that the lack of pedigree is a major feature of its notability.[3][4][1][5][b]

Mutts have long been found on the streets of Latin American countries.[2] As of 2026, Mexico's population of stray dogs has been estimated to be near 30 million.[c][7][5] In Brazil, the estimated population of stray dogs has increased one order of magnitude from 3.9 million in 2018[6] to 20 million in 2026.[7] Of all the free-ranging dogs living in Brazil as of 2026, up to 90 percent are both visually[8] and genetically [9] identifiable within the namesake colors of the "caramelo" trait. Due to their high genetic diversity, caramelo dogs are notably less prone to be affected by inherited diseases.[5]

Statistically significant persistence of some phenotypic traits—such as medium build, medium to long snout with black nose, short fur and, to a lesser degree, firm ears—has been consistently found in warm-colored mongrels of different regions.[10][9][5] Other than their hallmark characteristics, caramelos may have intragroup differences in appearance,[10] and the "caramelo" designation does not adhere to breed standards of animal fancy -purposed organizations.[2][11][12]

Tawny stray caramelo in Salvador, Bahia

Roughly half of caramelos who live on the streets are informally cared for by the community,[5][1] while another major part are simply roaming off, scrounging for food by themselves.[13] Despite general sympathy towards caramel mutts, rescued caramelos are often disfavored for adoption when compared with purebred dogs.[8]

Shelter caramelo in a dog adoption event.


Etymology

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Caramel § Etymology.[edit]

The English word comes from French caramel, borrowed from Spanish caramelo (18th century), itself possibly from Portuguese caramelo.[14] Most likely that comes from Late Latin calamellus 'sugar cane', a diminutive of calamus 'reed, cane', itself from Greek κάλαμος. Less likely, it comes from Medieval Latin cannamella, from canna 'cane' + mella 'honey'.[15] Finally, some dictionaries connect it to Arabic kora-moħalláh 'ball of sweet'.[16][17]

Origin

[edit]

Genomic studies have shown that the caramelo is a mix of nearly 300 breeds from Europe, Asia and the Americas,[13] which may explain the presence of caramel-colored mongrels[d] in warm-climate countries of different continents.[5] The geographic distribution of caramelos is especially significant in Latin American countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico and Peru.[2] Despite popular belief that caramelos are originally from Brazil,[18] dog acquisition by some Amazonian cultures began towards the end of the nineteenth century, and there is no evidence of an in-situ domestication initiated after that.[19] In addition, genetic pairwise distance analysis indicates that early populations of dogs in the Americas were quickly assimilated by those introduced from the first wave of European colonization onwards.[20]

Archaeological research has shown that medium-sized dogs with mesocephalic skulls existed in southeastern and southern regions of the Americas from at least the end of the third millennium BP to historical times.[20] As phylogenetic analyses identify both pre-Columbian and modern dogs further into the subclades of haplogroup A, the degree of similarity of alleles can be quantified such as to better trace these dogs ancestry;[20] knowledge on canine gene polymorphism tends to unfold as dogs from a wider geographic distribution are studied.[21]

Studies on gene polymorphisms have been less common for South American dog populations than European and North and Central American lineages,[19][21] the main knowledge gap being to establish local hybridizations and migratory routes of dogs.[19] Since dogs have traveled with humans to every continent,[22] and the evolution of Canis familiaris subspecies has been influenced by human history for thousands of years,[19] archaeogenetics data have been used as proxies to quantify dogs' morphological diversity during early peopling of the Americas.[22]

A 2015 assessment of archaeogenetics datasets indicated low levels of genetic diversity in pre-modern populations of dogs in the Americas when compared with dogs from other continents. It also identified new putative founding haplotypes,[e] which could be explained by ancient deliberate breeding practices[22] In another study, DNA analyses of Alaskan Husky dogs and Brazilian mongrels identified a previously unknown allele which, together with alleles only seen before in gray wolves, uncovered a new haplotypic combination in Brazilian dogs.[21]

Typology

[edit]
Mongrels' phaeomelanins
 
Dogs in Alcobaça, Bahia, Brazil
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Hex triplet#CD9D67
sRGBB (r, g, b)(205, 157, 103)
HSV (h, s, v)(32°, 50%, 80%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)(68, 55, 49°)
SourceGWAS-based numerical taxonomy[23][i][ii]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Genotype–phenotype mapping of color patterns is nonetheless bound to overlapping or inconsistent naming systems.[24]
Canine phaeomelanic scale[23]
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

Though not recognized by kennel club standards, their honey-colored fur became characteristic enough to warrant the caramelos a distinction of their own should their socio-environmental and cultural significances be taken into account,[7][25] most notably in Brazil,[7][18] where the vira-lata caramelo is both popularly and formally considered a national symbol,[26][27] often associated with Brazilian diversity pride and resilient adaptability.[3][4]

Mammalian coat color is attributed to alleles that are notably pleiotropic to behavioural phenotypes. [28][29] Upon domestication, certain traits were targeted by humans for being desirable and, for canids, tameness has been particularly favoured,[28] which translated to behaviour-based artificial selection.[24] [29] Therefore, early domestication of dogs has directly induced mutations associated with color disparities,[24][30] and the occurrence of yellowish offsprings is most likely as early as domestication itself,[24][30][23] which explains their persistent phylogeography across all continents,[30][24][9][7] including the late Siberian Zhokov island dog, the Australasian Dingo, the New Guinea Highland Dog and others.[24][30]

Based on mere observation of about 200 pictures of dogs, a researcher chose six equally distant colors from a list and assigned values from 1 to 6 for each of them, which served as operational variables, thus enabling a given dog's pigmentation to be mapped to a numerical value.
From a heuristically defined discrete scale, six equally distant colors were used to derive an operationable definition of pheomelanic pigmentation.[23][ii][iii]

The semantic extension of the "caramelo" category is purposefully unquantifiable,[5][13] their population structure is fuzzy by definition.[2][9] Inasmuch as a color-based qualifier, a "caramelo" dog is a mongrel whose coat's dominant pigmentation are phaeomelanins.[23][7][1][4] As for the tone, tint or shade, the chromaticity is a quantitative, continuously variable trait[23][31] expressed by alleles of the ASIP gene[24][31] that control the yellowness of the phaeomelanic pigment on hair follicles' melanocytes, ranging from whiter variants of the wild-type agouti to warmer (yellow–red gradient) intensities.[23][31][iv]

Culture

[edit]
Video promoted by the Central Bank of Brazil starring a talking caramelo, introduces the then-soon-to-be issued R$200 banknote. (In Brazilian Portuguese)

Brazil was the first to acknowledge the cultural significance of and to consider the caramelo as a national icon.[13][5] Brazilians take pride in relating to virtues traditionally associated with caramel mongrels, such as resilience in spite of marginalisation and survivorship in spite of hardness.[3] Widespread use of the image of caramelos included carnival parades, a 2025 Netflix movie starring an actual caramelo dog, advertisement campaigns and internet memes.[3][5][32]

In July 2020, Federal Deputy Fred Costa started an online petition to feature the caramelo dog on the soon-to-be issued R$200 banknotes. Although the Central Bank of Brazil had already decided to print the maned wolf on the notes, the bank agreed to promote caramelo dogs in response to calls for action against animal abuse.[33] In September 2020, a caramelo dog starred the official announcement of the new 200 Brazilian reals bill.[34][35][36]

In April 2023, Federal Deputy Felipe Becari introduced a bill to recognize the caramelo dog as an intangible cultural heritage in the country.[37][38][39]

Reddish brown caramelo

In January 2022, the Florianópolis City Council established Dezembro Caramelo ('Caramel December') to raise awareness about dog abandonment.[40][41][42] Similarly, the municipality of São Gabriel, Rio Grande do Sul also launched a 'Caramel December' campaign for the welfare of stray animals.[43] The caramelos also reached other Brazilian legislative branches at state and municipal levels.[7]

On April 4, 2025, Christ the Redeemer—one of the New 7 Wonders of the World and a cultural symbol of Brazil—was illuminated with a projection depicting the statue holding a caramelo dog in honor of World Stray Animals Day.[44] The Military Police Museum in Rio de Janeiro features a taxidermied caramelo dog named "Bruto" who accompanied officers in the Paraguayan War in the 19th century.[4]

Caramel "firulais"

[edit]
Mexican "perrito amarillo".

Street dogs in Mexico are often called "solovinos", a portmanteau of solo vinos—roughly "[they] came alone"—referring to these dogs that, after roaming alone, began living in the area and were eventually accepted by the community. Another common nickname that came to the use by the Latino community is "firulais", a light-humored quasi-portmanteau due to US-Mexican border agents asking people whether their pets were "free of lice", to which they respond "yes, firulais."[1]

On April 16, 2026, Mexico's Environmental Agency recognized the so-called "perrito amarillo" (Spanish for 'yellow doggy') as an official breed; alongside the Chihuahuas, the Calupohs and the Xoloitzcuintles, the caramelos represent a part of the country's natural and cultural heritage, in addition to the formal recognition of the caramel mutt as a national symbol.[2][7][1][13] The Mexican Secretariat was inspired by a 2025 campaign fomented by the Brazilian government,[18] the purpose of which, likewise, has been to advocate for the cultural significance of stray dogs' ubiquitous interaction with people in the urban environment.[2][13] By declaring the caramelo dog a national symbol, both governments intended to overcome prejudice against non-purebred animals and encourage the adoption of shelter mongrels.[7][5]

Academic

[edit]

Research on interspecies emotion perception has consistently shown that humans are able to identify emotional states in pictures of dogs,[45][46] whereupon the accuracy of emotion identification was highest for the Belgian Shepherd, followed by the Dobermann, and lowest for the Rhodesian Ridgeback.[46] The researchers suggested that these breeds' markedly distinct appearances could have enhanced, hindered, or otherwise affected the participants' perceptions of subtle facial expressions.[46] Another causal linkage has been conjectured whereby humans' ability to recognize emotions in dogs are developmentally acquired through passive exposure to the manner that, and degree to which, stray dogs are integrated in a socio-cultural setting, including their presence and the general attitude towards street dogs in a given milieu.[47]

An adaptation of Baron Cohen's Mind Reading in the Eyes Test was developed into a cross culturally-valid version of the emotion recognition protocol,[48] and when the study was conducted in Brazil, emotion identification accuracy was highest for the Rhodesian Ridgeback instead,[48] which prompted the researchers to mention the "similar[ity] to common Brazilian stray dogs (Vira-Latas Carmelo [sic])" as corroborative evidence of human ecology influences previously suggested elsewhere.[48][29][47][30][22] In addition to introducing the caramelo dogs to the academic stage,[v] the study also argued that the Baron Cohen's Test, canine version, could provide further insights about individual differences in Theory of Mind (the ability to recognize the thoughts or feelings of others and to predict their behavior).[48]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ cachorro caramelo (in Portuguese), perro caramelo (in Spanish); or simply caramelo
  2. ↑ Other Latin American Countries: Often called perro amarillo (yellow dog) or simply mestizos (mixed breeds). Boca-preta Sertanejo
  3. ↑ In this context, a 'stray' or 'free-ranging' dog refers to any dog who is not under the care of a specific person at the time being; 'vulnerable', while often used interchangeably in the sources, refers to dogs living on the streets and regularly being taken care of by members of a community or neighborhood as well as pets whose tutor or tutors live below the poverty threshold[6]
  4. ↑ or regional designations thereof
  5. ↑ in addition to those that closely resemble mtDNA haplotypes of wolves, which is already expected from any given canis[22]
  1. ↑ Mean phenotype for the mixed-breed cohort (see table)
  2. 1 2 All relevant data are available under CC0 1.0 at dryad.
  3. ↑ The dog pictured in Fig B is "Duke" (owned by Adam Tracy). The source does not mention whether or not Duke is a mongrel.
  4. ↑ In traditional color theory, the colors within the range between red and yellow are, by definition, shades of orange.
  5. ↑ Explicitly termed "caramelo", that is

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Morales, Mia (Apr 28, 2026). "We all have a caramelo: Meet Mexico's 4th national dog, the caramel dog". ValleyCentral. Harlingen, Texas. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mishkov, Aleksandar (7 May 2026). "Mexico Recognizes Caramelo Dog, Sparking Brazil's Claim Over Its Origins". Parade Pets. Retrieved 9 June 2026.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "These Brazilian caramel-coloured stray dogs were long overlooked — now they're having a major moment". CTV News. 2024-04-19. Retrieved 2026-02-21.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Biller, David (2024-12-18). "Forget soccer and samba. This caramel-colored street dog is Brazil's new national icon". AP News. Archived from the original on 2024-12-18. Retrieved 2025-04-09.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cardin, Adele (10 June 2026). "Mexico Claims the Caramel Street Dog, and Brazil Bristles". The Rio Times. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  6. 1 2 Puente, Beatriz (8 August 2022). "Brasil tem quase 185 mil animais resgatados por ONGs, diz instituto". CNN Brasil (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ionova, Ana; Mega, Emiliano; Moriconi, Lis (June 2, 2026). "It's a Bone of Contention: Mexico and Brazil Are Arguing Over Dogs". New York Times. Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved June 7, 2026.
  8. 1 2 "Dispute between Brazil and Mexico for the "Caramelo" dog breed". Mexico Daily Post. 3 June 2026. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Mars Petcare (18 December 2025). "Pesquisa inédita revela o DNA do caramelo e identifica as raças e características mais comuns do cão mais querido do Brasil". PRNewswire. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  10. 1 2 Elanco (29 July 2025). "July 31st is Mixed-Breed Dog Day: Elanco offers tips for responsible adoption and healthy pet adaptation". PRNewswire. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  11. ↑ "Breeding". Federation Cynologique Internationale.
  12. ↑ "Inspections and compliance". American Kennel Club.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Mexico and Brazil are quarrelling over a dog breed. Here's why". Firstpost. June 3, 2026. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  14. ↑ American Heritage Dictionary, 5th edition, 2011, s.v.
  15. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1888, s.v.
  16. ↑ Littré, Dictionnaire de la langue française, s.v.
  17. ↑ The arguments are summarized in Paget Toynbee, "Cennamella"—"Caramel"—"Canamell", The Academy, 34:864:338, November 24, 1888.
  18. 1 2 3 "México reconhece 'cachorro caramelo' como raça mexicana e provoca reação de brasileiros nas redes sociais" [Mexico recognizes 'caramel-colored dog' as a Mexican breed and causes reaction from Brazilians in social media]. g1 (in Portuguese). Grupo Globo. 23 April 2026. Retrieved June 7, 2026.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Segura V, Geiger M, Monson T, Flores D, Sánchez-Villagra M (21 January 2022). "Biological and cultural history of domesticated dogs in the Americas". Anthropozoologica. 57 (1). Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris. doi:10.5252/anthropozoologica2022v57a1. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  20. 1 2 3 Loponte D, Acosta A, Gascue A, Pfrengle S, Schuenemann VJ, Bortolotto N, Carbonera M, Garcia Esponda C, Voglino D, Milheira R, Ferrari A (2 November 2023). "The Southernmost pre-columbian dogs in the Americas: phenotype, chronology, diet and genetics". Environmental Archaeology. 28 (6): 443–474. Bibcode:2023EnvAr..28..443L. doi:10.1080/14614103.2021.1922985. hdl:11336/165361. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  21. 1 2 3 Kennedy LJ, Barnes A, Happ GM, Quinnell RJ, Courtenay O, Carter SD, Ollier WR, Thomson W (July 2002). "Evidence for extensive DLA polymorphism in different dog populations". Tissue Antigens. 60 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0039.2002.600106.x. PMID 12366782. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Witt K, Judd K, Kitchen A, Grier C, Kohler T, Ortman S, Kemp B, Malhi R (February 2015). "DNA analysis of ancient dogs of the Americas: Identifying possible founding haplotypes and reconstructing population histories". Journal of Human Evolution. 79: 105–118. Bibcode:2015JHumE..79..105W. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.012. PMID 25532803. Retrieved 7 June 2026.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Slavney AJ, Kawakami T, Jensen MK, Nelson TC, Sams AJ, Boyko AR (2021). "Five genetic variants explain over 70% of hair coat pheomelanin intensity variation in purebred and mixed breed domestic dogs". PLOS ONE. 16 (5) e0250579. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1650579S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250579. PMC 8158882. PMID 34043658.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bannasch DL, Kaelin CB, Letko A, Loechel R, Hug P, Jagannathan V, Henkel J, Roosje P, Hytönen MK, Lohi H, Arumilli M, DoGA consortium, Minor KM, Mickelson JR, Drögemüller C, Barsh GS, Leeb T (12 August 2021). "Dog colour patterns explained by modular promoters of ancient canid origin". Nature Ecology and Evolution. 5 (10). Nature Portfolio: 1415–1423. Bibcode:2021NatEE...5.1415B. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01524-x. PMC 8484016. PMID 34385618.
  25. ↑ Elva Pérez (20 April 2026). "Do you have a Caramelo dog at home? This Mexican little guy has now been officially recognized". CDMX secreta. Retrieved 29 June 2026.
  26. ↑ Xavier, Luiz Gustavo (2023-07-26). "Projeto reconhece a expressão "vira-lata caramelo" como manifestação cultural imaterial do Brasil" [Project recognizes the expression "vira-lata caramelo" as an intangible cultural manifestation of Brazil]. Portal da Câmara dos Deputados (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2026-02-21.
  27. ↑ National Geographic Brasil (July 2021). "Vira-lata caramelo: símbolo nacional dos cães sem raça definida". National Geographic Brasil (in Portuguese).
  28. 1 2 Reissmann, Monika; Ludwig, Arne (April 2013). "Pleiotropic effects of coat colour-associated mutations in humans, mice and other mammals". Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology. 24 (6–7). Elsevier: 576–586. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2013.03.014. PMID 23583561. Retrieved 2026-06-25.
  29. 1 2 3 Sundman AS, Pértille F, Lehmann Coutinho L, Jazin E, Guerrero-Bosagna C, Jensen P (2020). "DNA methylation in canine brains is related to domestication and dog-breed formation". PLoS One. 15 (10) e0240787. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1540787S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0240787. PMC 7595415. PMID 33119634.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Pilot M, Moura AE, Okhlopkov IM, Mamaev NV, Alagaili AN, Mohammed OB, Yavruyan EG, Manaseryan NH, Hayrapetyan V, Kopaliani N, Tsingarska E, Krofel M, Skoglund P, Bogdanowicz W (November 2019). "Global Phylogeographic and Admixture Patterns in Grey Wolves and Genetic Legacy of An Ancient Siberian Lineage". Sci Rep. 9 (1) 17328. Bibcode:2019NatSR...917328P. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-53492-9. PMC 6874602. PMID 31757998.
  31. 1 2 3 Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM): 600201
  32. ↑ de Lima, Ludmilla (1 July 2024). "Cachorros vira-latas somam mais de 30% dos pets no Brasil, revela pesquisa". Veja (in Portuguese). Abril Comunicações. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  33. ↑ Queiroga, Louise (2020-08-06). "Banco Central estuda ação para vira-lata caramelo após petição de nota de R$200" [Central Bank considers action for caramel mongrel after R$200 note petition]. Extra Online (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  34. ↑ Neves, Gabriel (2020-09-05). "VÍDEO: Vira-lata caramelo é o novo "garoto propaganda" da nota de R$200" [VIDEO: Caramel mutt is the new "poster boy" for the R$200 note.]. Midiamax (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2020-09-05. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  35. ↑ "Vira-lata caramelo é destaque em anúncio do BC sobre nova nota de R$200 | Economia | G1" [Caramel mongrel featured in BC announcement about new R$200 note]. Globo (in Portuguese). 2020-09-05. Archived from the original on 2020-09-05. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  36. ↑ Oliveira, Kelly (2020-09-05). "Vira-lata caramelo faz anúncio sobre nova cédula de R$200" [Caramel mongrel makes announcement about new R$200 bill]. Agência Brasil (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 2020-09-05. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  37. ↑ Mansur, Ana Isabel (2023-04-29). "Projeto de lei quer reconhecer vira-lata caramelo como patrimônio imaterial do Brasil" [Bill seeks to recognize caramel mutt as intangible heritage of Brazil]. R7 Brasilia (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  38. ↑ Xavier, Luiz Gustavo (2023-07-26). "Projeto reconhece a expressão "vira-lata caramelo" como manifestação cultural imaterial do Brasil" [Project recognizes the expression "vira-lata caramelo" as an intangible cultural manifestation of Brazil]. Portal da Câmara dos Deputados (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  39. ↑ Maria, Leticia (2023-07-27). "Expressão 'vira-lata caramelo' pode se tornar patrimônio no Brasil" [The expression 'caramel mutt' could become a heritage in Brazil]. Gazeta De S. Paulo (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  40. ↑ "Projeto inclui o "Dezembro Caramelo" no calendário de Florianópolis" [Project includes "Caramel December" in Florianópolis' calendar]. TV Cultura (in Portuguese). 2022-05-17. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  41. ↑ Mayer, Sofia (2022-05-17). "Entenda lei que cria o mês do 'vira-lata caramelo' em Florianópolis" [Understand the law that creates the month of the 'caramel mutt' in Florianópolis]. Globo (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  42. ↑ "Câmara institui o mês Dezembro Caramelo em Florianópolis" [Chamber establishes Caramel December month in Florianópolis]. FloripAmanhã (in Portuguese). 2022-05-05. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  43. ↑ "São Gabriel investe em ações em Prol Do Bem-estar Animal" [São Gabriel Invests In Actions For Animal Welfare]. Prefeitura Municipal de São Gabriel (in Portuguese). 2022-05-12. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  44. ↑ "Cristo Redentor ganha projeção segurando vira-lata caramelo para promover adoção responsável de animais" [Christ the Redeemer is projected holding a caramel-colored stray dog to promote responsible animal adoption]. g1 (in Portuguese). Grupo Globo. 2025-04-04. Retrieved 2025-04-04.
  45. ↑ Bloom, Tina; Friedman, Harris (26 February 2013). "Classifying dogs' (Canis familiaris) facial expressions from photographs". Behavioural Processes. 96. Elsevier: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2013.02.010. PMID 23485925. Retrieved 18 June 2026.
  46. 1 2 3 Bloom, Tina; Trevathan-Minnis, Melissa; Atlas, Nick; MacDonald, Douglas A.; Friedman, Harris L. (May 2021). "Identifying facial expressions in dogs: A replication and extension study". Behavioural Processes. 186 104371. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104371. PMID 33652087. Retrieved 18 June 2026.
  47. 1 2 Amici, Federica; Waterman, James; Kellermann, Christina Maria; Karimullah, Karimullah; Bräuer, Juliane (11 November 2019). "The ability to recognize dog emotions depends on the cultural milieu in which we grow up". Scientific Reports. 9 (1) 16414. Nature Portfolio. Bibcode:2019NatSR...916414A. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52938-4. PMC 6848084. PMID 31712680.
  48. 1 2 3 4 Burza, Laura Brochini; Bloom, Tina; Trindade, Pedro Henrique Esteves; Friedman, Harris; Otta, Emma (September 2022). "Reading emotions in Dogs' eyes and Dogs' faces". Behavioural Processes. 202 104752. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104752. ISSN 0376-6357. PMID 36162604. Retrieved 23 June 2026.
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